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  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta-sigma_modulation
    Delta-sigma modulation
    Delta-sigma (ΔΣ; or sigma-delta, ΣΔ) modulation is a method for encoding analog signals into digital signals as found in an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). It is also used to convert high-bit-count, low-frequency digital signals into lower-bit-count, higher-frequency digital signals as part of the process to convert digital signals into analog as part of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). In a conventional ADC, an analog signal is sampled with a sampling frequency and subsequently quantized in a multi-level quantizer into a digital signal. This process introduces quantization error noise. The first step in a delta-sigma modulation is delta modulation. In delta modulation the change in the signal (its delta) is encoded, rather than the absolute value. The result is a stream of pulses, as opposed to a stream of numbers as is the case with pulse-code modulation (PCM). In delta-sigma modulation, accuracy of the modulation is improved by passing the digital output through a 1-bit DAC and adding (sigma) the resulting analog signal to the input signal (the signal before delta modulation), thereby reducing the error introduced...
    EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG
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    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta-sigma_modulation
    Delta-sigma modulation
    Delta-sigma (ΔΣ; or sigma-delta, ΣΔ) modulation is a method for encoding analog signals into digital signals as found in an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). It is also used to convert high-bit-count, low-frequency digital signals into lower-bit-count, higher-frequency digital signals as part of the process to convert digital signals into analog as part of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). In a conventional ADC, an analog signal is sampled with a sampling frequency and subsequently quantized in a multi-level quantizer into a digital signal. This process introduces quantization error noise. The first step in a delta-sigma modulation is delta modulation. In delta modulation the change in the signal (its delta) is encoded, rather than the absolute value. The result is a stream of pulses, as opposed to a stream of numbers as is the case with pulse-code modulation (PCM). In delta-sigma modulation, accuracy of the modulation is improved by passing the digital output through a 1-bit DAC and adding (sigma) the resulting analog signal to the input signal (the signal before delta modulation), thereby reducing the error introduced...
    EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta-sigma_modulation
    Delta-sigma modulation
    Delta-sigma (ΔΣ; or sigma-delta, ΣΔ) modulation is a method for encoding analog signals into digital signals as found in an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). It is also used to convert high-bit-count, low-frequency digital signals into lower-bit-count, higher-frequency digital signals as part of the process to convert digital signals into analog as part of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). In a conventional ADC, an analog signal is sampled with a sampling frequency and subsequently quantized in a multi-level quantizer into a digital signal. This process introduces quantization error noise. The first step in a delta-sigma modulation is delta modulation. In delta modulation the change in the signal (its delta) is encoded, rather than the absolute value. The result is a stream of pulses, as opposed to a stream of numbers as is the case with pulse-code modulation (PCM). In delta-sigma modulation, accuracy of the modulation is improved by passing the digital output through a 1-bit DAC and adding (sigma) the resulting analog signal to the input signal (the signal before delta modulation), thereby reducing the error introduced...
    EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta-sigma_modulation
    Delta-sigma modulation
    Delta-sigma (ΔΣ; or sigma-delta, ΣΔ) modulation is a method for encoding analog signals into digital signals as found in an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). It is also used to convert high-bit-count, low-frequency digital signals into lower-bit-count, higher-frequency digital signals as part of the process to convert digital signals into analog as part of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). In a conventional ADC, an analog signal is sampled with a sampling frequency and subsequently quantized in a multi-level quantizer into a digital signal. This process introduces quantization error noise. The first step in a delta-sigma modulation is delta modulation. In delta modulation the change in the signal (its delta) is encoded, rather than the absolute value. The result is a stream of pulses, as opposed to a stream of numbers as is the case with pulse-code modulation (PCM). In delta-sigma modulation, accuracy of the modulation is improved by passing the digital output through a 1-bit DAC and adding (sigma) the resulting analog signal to the input signal (the signal before delta modulation), thereby reducing the error introduced...
    EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta-sigma_modulation
    Delta-sigma modulation
    Delta-sigma (ΔΣ; or sigma-delta, ΣΔ) modulation is a method for encoding analog signals into digital signals as found in an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). It is also used to convert high-bit-count, low-frequency digital signals into lower-bit-count, higher-frequency digital signals as part of the process to convert digital signals into analog as part of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). In a conventional ADC, an analog signal is sampled with a sampling frequency and subsequently quantized in a multi-level quantizer into a digital signal. This process introduces quantization error noise. The first step in a delta-sigma modulation is delta modulation. In delta modulation the change in the signal (its delta) is encoded, rather than the absolute value. The result is a stream of pulses, as opposed to a stream of numbers as is the case with pulse-code modulation (PCM). In delta-sigma modulation, accuracy of the modulation is improved by passing the digital output through a 1-bit DAC and adding (sigma) the resulting analog signal to the input signal (the signal before delta modulation), thereby reducing the error introduced...
    EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG
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  • https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1096432
    Decimation for Sigma Delta Modulation
    Decimation is an important component of oversampled analog-to-digital conversion. It transforms the digitally modulated signal from short words occurring at high sampling rate to longer words at the Nyquist rate. Here we are concerned with the initial stage of decimation, where the word rate decreases to about four times the Nyquist rate. We show that digital filters comprising cascades of integrate-and-dump functions can match the structure of the noise from sigma delta modulation to provide decimation with negligible loss of signal-to-noise ratio. Explicit formulas evaluate particular tradeoffs between modulation rate, signal-to-noise ratio, length of digital words, and complexity of the modulating and decimating functions.
    IEEEXPLORE.IEEE.ORG
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    https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1096432
    Decimation for Sigma Delta Modulation
    Decimation is an important component of oversampled analog-to-digital conversion. It transforms the digitally modulated signal from short words occurring at high sampling rate to longer words at the Nyquist rate. Here we are concerned with the initial stage of decimation, where the word rate decreases to about four times the Nyquist rate. We show that digital filters comprising cascades of integrate-and-dump functions can match the structure of the noise from sigma delta modulation to provide decimation with negligible loss of signal-to-noise ratio. Explicit formulas evaluate particular tradeoffs between modulation rate, signal-to-noise ratio, length of digital words, and complexity of the modulating and decimating functions.
    IEEEXPLORE.IEEE.ORG
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  • https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7129003
    Asynchronous sigma-delta modulator and fast demodulator
    Asynchronous sigma-delta modulator (ASDM) is closed-loop nonlinear system that transform the information in the amplitude of a bounded input signal into time information in the output signal, without suffering from quantization noise such as in synchronous sigma-delta modulators. This is an important advantage with many interesting applications. This paper investigates the commonly used asynchronous sigma-delta modulator, which consists of a Schmitt trigger and a continuous-time loop filter. A detailed analysis is presented to accurately describe the properties of such modulator. The circuit for fast demodulation of modulated signal is also described. The theoretical derivations were compared with simulation and measuring results, and they illustrate a good match. The presented circuits were analyzed, simulated, constructed and measured.
    IEEEXPLORE.IEEE.ORG
    Similar Pages
    https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7129003
    Asynchronous sigma-delta modulator and fast demodulator
    Asynchronous sigma-delta modulator (ASDM) is closed-loop nonlinear system that transform the information in the amplitude of a bounded input signal into time information in the output signal, without suffering from quantization noise such as in synchronous sigma-delta modulators. This is an important advantage with many interesting applications. This paper investigates the commonly used asynchronous sigma-delta modulator, which consists of a Schmitt trigger and a continuous-time loop filter. A detailed analysis is presented to accurately describe the properties of such modulator. The circuit for fast demodulation of modulated signal is also described. The theoretical derivations were compared with simulation and measuring results, and they illustrate a good match. The presented circuits were analyzed, simulated, constructed and measured.
    IEEEXPLORE.IEEE.ORG
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  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma_bond
    Sigma bond
    In chemistry, sigma bonds (σ bonds) are the strongest type of covalent chemical bond. They are formed by head-on overlapping between atomic orbitals. Sigma bonding is most simply defined for diatomic molecules using the language and tools of symmetry groups. In this formal approach, a σ-bond is symmetrical with respect to rotation about the bond axis. By this definition, common forms of sigma bonds are s+s, pz+pz, s+pz and dz2+dz2 (where z is defined as the axis of the bond or the internuclear axis). Quantum theory also indicates that molecular orbitals (MO) of identical symmetry actually mix or hybridize. As a practical consequence of this mixing of diatomic molecules, the wavefunctions s+s and pz+pz molecular orbitals become blended. The extent of this mixing (or hybridization or blending) depends on the relative energies of the MOs of like symmetry. For homodiatomics (homonuclear diatomic molecules), bonding σ orbitals have no nodal planes at which the wavefunction is zero, either between the bonded atoms or passing through the bonded atoms. The corresponding...
    EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG
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  • _2$

    § Code

    # Найдем средние значения для каждой выборки
    mean_1 = np.mean(sample_1)
    mean_2 = np.mean(sample_2)
    # Найдем стандартные отклонения
    std_1 = np.std(sample_1, ddof=1) # ddof=1 - учитываем, что у нас выборки, а не ген.совокупность
    std_2 = np.std(sample_2, ddof=1)
    # z-score: (x - mean)/std
    zscore_1 = (mean_2 - mean_1)/np.sqrt((std_1**2 + std_2**2)/2) # sqrt - квадратный корень (возводим число в 0.5 степень)
    zscore_1 # 0.32584344884752385 - z-score 1-ой выборки
    # z-score: (x - mean)/std
    zscore_2 = (mean_1 - mean_2)/np.sqrt((std_1**2 + std_2**2)/2) # sqrt - квадратный корень (возводим число в 0.5 степень)
    zscore_2 # -0.32584344884752385 - z-score 2-ой выборки
























    § END OF DOC

    By: ChatGPT AI
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  • $-algebra on $X$

    Let $X$ be a set and let $\mathcal{P}(X)$ denote the power set of $X$. A $\sigma$-algebra $\mathcal{A} \subseteq \mathcal{P}(X)$ is a collection of subsets of $X$ that satisfies the following conditions:

    1. $\emptyset \in \mathcal{A}$.
    2. If $A \in \mathcal{A}$, then its complement, $A^c = X\setminus A$, is also in $\mathcal{A}$.
    3. If $(A_n)_{n=1}^{\infty}$ is a sequence of sets in $\mathcal{A}$, then their union, $\bigcup_{n=1}^{\infty}{A_n}\in\mathcal{A}$.

    The elements of a $\sigma$-algebra are called measurable sets.

    By: ChatGPT AI
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